Today the manual is in its fourth edition, and the APA format described in it is a widely recognized standard for scientific writing.
Some of the more commonly used rules and reference formats from the manual are listed here. However, this web page is no substitute for the page manual itself, which should be purchased by any serious psychology student in the U. The APA manual can be found in almost any college bookstore as well as in many large, general-purpose bookstores, in the reference and style guide section.
It can be obtained directly from the APA order department at The fourth edition of the style manual, issued in , contained these additions and changes to the pre-existing APA style:. The manual notes pp. Following is a summary of rules and reference examples in the APA style manual.
The manual itself contains all this information and more, organized and worded differently, indexed and illustrated. If in doubt about a specific rule or example, consult the manual itself. In general, avoid anything that causes offense.
The style manual makes the following suggestions:. DO NOT use The term "gender" refers to culture and should be used when referring to men and women as social groups, as in this example from the publication manual: "sexual orientation rather than gender accounted for most of the variance in the results; most gay men and lesbians were for it, most heterosexual men and women were against it.
The term "sex" refers to biology and should be used when biological distinctions are emphasized, for example, "sex differences in hormone production. Avoid gender stereotypes. For example, the manual suggests replacing "An American boy's infatuation with football" with "An American child's infatuation with football.
Be sensitive to labels. A person in a clinical study should be called a "patient," not a "case. In racial references, the manual simply recommends that we respect current usage.
Currently both the terms "Black" and "African American" are widely accepted, while "Negro" and "Afro-American" are not. These things change, so use common sense.
Capitalize Black and White when the words are used as proper nouns to refer to social groups. Do not use color words for other ethnic groups. The manual specifies that hyphens should not be used in multiword names such as Asian American or African American.
Labels can be tricky, and the manual has a lot to say about them. For example, "American Indian" and "Native American" are both acceptable usages, but the manual notes that there are nearly Native American groups, including Hawaiians and Samoans, so specific group names are far more informative. The terms Hispanic, Latino, and Chicano are preferred by different groups. The safest procedure is use geographical references.
Just say "Cuban American" if referring to people from Cuba. The term Asian American is preferable to Oriental, and again the manual recommends being specific about country of origin, when this is known for example, Chinese or Vietnamese.
People from northern Canada, Alaska, eastern Siberia, and Greenland often but not always! This type of difficulty is avoided by using geographical references. For example, in place of "Eskimo" or "Inuit" one could use "people from northern Canada, Alaska, eastern Siberia, and Greenland. In general, call people what they want to be called, and do not contrast one group of people with another group called "normal" people. Write "we compared people with autism to people without autism" not "we contrasted autistics to normals.
In referring to age, be specific about age ranges; avoid open-ended definitions like "under 16" or "over For persons 18 and older use "men" and "women. References are citations of other works such as books, journal articles, or private communications.
References in text are treated somewhat differently from references in the complete list at the end of a paper. NOTE: wherever you see italics below, you should actually underline when preparing your paper. Italics are used here because many browsers use underlines to indicate links. References should be indented 5 to 7 spaces on the first line, just like other paragraphs. The APA publication manual contains 77 examples of different reference types pp. Here are a few examples of the most commonly used formats.
New York Times, pp. B13, B The elements of style 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders 3rd ed. Older person is preferred. Boy and Girl are acceptable referring to high school and and younger. For persons 18 and older use men and women. Level C headings: Indented, italicized, sentence caps, end with a period. These headings are sometimes referred to as paragraph or run-in headings. Although they end with a period or other punctuation they need not be complete sentences or grammatically correct.
Use headings in the order presented. If you need just two levels, use Level A and Level B headings. Level A and B headings do not end with punctuation except to add emphasis with an exclamation point or question mark.
Do not begin a paper with the heading Introduction. It is understood that all papers begin with an introduction. Note: "Author" is used as above when author and publisher are identical. Booth, W. The craft of research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Strunk, W. The elements of style 3rd ed. The official source for seventh edition APA Style that guides users through the scholarly writing process. Course Adoption. Handouts and Guides. Tutorials and Webinars. Journal article reporting standards JARS are designed for journal authors, reviewers, and editors to enhance scientific rigor in peer-reviewed journal articles.
Some of the more commonly used rules and reference formats from the manual are listed here. However, this web page is no substitute for the manual itself, which should be purchased by any serious social and behavioral sciences student in the U.
Following is a summary of rules and reference examples in the APA style manual. The manual itself contains all this information and more, organized and worded differently, indexed and illustrated.
If in doubt about a specific rule or example, consult the manual itself. The following abbreviations should NOT be used outside parenthetical comments:. Use periods when making an abbreviation within a reference Vol. Do not use periods within measurements lb, ft, s except inches in. Use s for second, m for meter. To form plurals of abbreviations, add s alone, without apostrophe, for example: PhDs, IQs, vols.
Two oddities: In using standard abbreviations for measurements, like m for meter, do not add an s to make it plural seconds is s , and when referring to more than one page, use the abbreviation pp. Use two-letter postal codes for U. Avoiding Biased and Pejorative Language In general, avoid anything that causes offense or may lead to unintended gender bias. The style manual makes the following suggestions:. Correct use of the terms "gender" and "sex".
The term "gender" refers to culture and should be used when referring to men and women as social groups, as in this example from the publication manual: "sexual orientation rather than gender accounted for most of the variance in the results; most gay men and lesbians were for it, most heterosexual men and women were against it.
The term "sex" refers to biology and should be used when biological distinctions are emphasized, for example: "sex differences in hormone production. Avoid gender stereotypes. For example, the manual suggests replacing "An American boy's infatuation with football" with "An American child's infatuation with football.
Sensitivity to labels. Be sensitive to labels. A person in a clinical study should be called a "patient," not a "case. In racial references, the manual simply recommends that we respect current usage. Currently both the terms "Black" and "African American" are widely accepted, while "Negro" and "Afro-American" are not.
These things change, so use common sense. Capitalize Black and White when the words are used as proper nouns to refer to social groups. Do not use color words for other ethnic groups. The manual specifies that hyphens should not be used in multiword names such as Asian American or African American. Labels can be tricky, and the manual has a lot to say about them. For example, "American Indian" and "Native American" are both acceptable usages, but the manual notes that there are nearly Native American groups, including Hawaiians and Samoans, so specific group names are far more informative.
The terms Hispanic, Latino, and Chicano are preferred by different groups. The safest procedure is use geographical references.
Just say "Cuban American" if referring to people from Cuba. The term Asian American is preferable to Oriental, and again the manual recommends being specific about country of origin, when this is known for example, Chinese, Vietnamese. People from northern Canada, Alaska, eastern Siberia, and Greenland often but not always! This type of difficulty is avoided by using geographical references. For example, in place of "Eskimo" or "Inuit" one could use "people from northern Canada, Alaska, eastern Siberia, and Greenland".
In general, call people what they want to be called, and do not contrast a one group of people with another group called "normal" people. Write "we compared people with autism to people without autism" not "we contrasted autistics to normals. In referring to age, be specific about age ranges; avoid open-ended definitions like "under 16" or "over For persons 18 and older use "men" and "women.
Capitalize major words and all other words of four letters or more, in headings, titles, and subtitles outside reference lists, for example: "A Study of No-Win Strategies. Capitalize names of conditions, groups, effects, and variables only when definite Group A was the control group; an Age x Weight interaction showed lower weight with age. Capitalize the first word after a colon if and only if it begins a complete sentence. For example: "This is a complete sentence, so it is capitalized.
Do not capitalize generic names of tests Stroop color test. Capitalize nouns before numbers, but not before variables Trial 2, trial x.
0コメント